1509 Constantinople earthquake
The 1509 Constantinople earthquake or historically Kıyamet-i Sugra (‘Minor Judgment Day’) occurred in the Sea of Marmara on 10 September 1509 at about 22:00. The earthquake had an estimated magnitude of 7.2 ± 0.3 on the surface-wave magnitude scale.[2] A tsunami and 45 days of aftershocks followed the earthquake. The death toll of this earthquake is poorly known; estimates range between 1,000 and 13,000.
  Istanbul Edirne | |
| Local date | 10 September 1509 |
|---|---|
| Local time | 22:00 |
| Magnitude | Ms7.2 ± 0.3 |
| Epicenter |  40.75°N 29.00°E[1]near the Prince’s Islands, Sea of Marmara |
| Fault | North Anatolian Fault |
| Areas affected | Ottoman Empire |
| Tsunami | Yes |
| Casualties | 1,000 to 13,000 dead 10,000 + injured 1070 houses destroyed |
Background
The Sea of Marmara is a pull-apart basin formed at a releasing bend in the North Anatolian Fault, a right-lateral strike-slip fault. This local zone of extension occurs where this transform boundary between the Anatolian plate and the Eurasian plate steps northwards to the west of Izmit from the Izmit Fault to the Ganos Fault. The pattern of faults within the Sea of Marmara basin is complex but near Istanbul there is a single main fault segment with a sharp bend. To the west, the fault trends west–east and is pure strike-slip in type. To the east, the fault is NW-SE trending and shows evidence of both normal and strike-slip motion.[3] Movement on this fault, which bounds the Çınarcık Basin, was the most likely cause of the 1509 event.[2]
Earthquake and tsunami
The earthquake occurred on September 10, 1509, in the northeast of the Sea of Marmara within the borders of the Ottoman Empire, and in the south of Prince’s Islands, 29 km (18 mi) away from the capital Constantinople. It is thought that a fault ruptures between 70 km (43 mi) and 100 km (62 mi) from the Çınarcık Basin of the North Anatolian Fault Line to the Gulf of Izmit in the east of the Sea of Marmara.[2][4] Major shocks occurred at half-hour intervals and were violent and protracted in nature, forcing residents to seek refuge in open parks and squares.[2] Aftershocks were said to have continued for 18 days without causing any further damage but delayed reconstruction in some areas.[2]
A tsunami is mentioned in some sources with a run-up of greater than 6.0 m (19.7 ft), but discounted in others.[2] The waves that surpassed the walls of the city and the Genoese Walls penetrated into the settlements. Especially in the Galata region, many houses were flooded. Seismologists and geologists believe that the tsunami observed in the Sea of Marmara was not only related to the earthquake, but also caused by seafloor landslides triggered by the earthquake.[5] A turbidite bed whose deposition matches the date of the earthquake has been recognised in the Çınarcık Basin.[6]
Reports were sent to the capital that the earthquake caused damage even in Edirne, Çorlu, Gallipoli and Dimetoka, which were part of the Rumelia Province of the Empire.[7]
Damage
The area of significant damage (greater than VII (Very strong)) extended from Çorlu in the west to Izmit in the east. Galata and Büyükçekmece also suffered severe damage. In Constantinople 109 mosques were utterly destroyed, while most of those left standing suffered damage to their minarets. While 1070 homes collapsed, 49 towers along the Walls of Constantinople also collapsed or were damaged. The newly built Bayezid II Mosque was badly damaged; the main dome was destroyed and a minaret collapsed. The Fatih Mosque suffered damage to its four great columns and the dome was split.
The quake also damaged the Rumeli Fortress, Anadolu Fortress, the Yoros Castle in Anadolu Kavağı, and the Maiden’s Tower.[8] Aqueduct of Valens, located near Şehzadebaşı and supplying water to the city, was affected, the part of the aqueduct near the Şehzade Mosque was damaged.[5] The Grand Mosque of Hagia Sophia survived almost unscathed, although a minaret collapsed. Inside the mosque, the plaster that had been used to cover up the Byzantine mosaics inside the dome fell off, revealing the Christian images.[2] Damage occurred to the Hadım Ali Pasha Mosque, and six columns and the Obelisk of Theodosius in the Hippodrome collapsed.[7]
The number of dead and injured is hard to estimate, with different sources giving accounts varying from 1,000 to 13,000.[2] It is believed that some members of the Ottoman dynasty died in this earthquake. Aftershocks continued for 45 days after the earthquake, and people were unable to return to their homes for two months.[8]
Aftermath
The sultan’s residence Topkapı Palace was not damaged but Bayezid II’s bedroom collapsed at the tremor, with the sultan only saved by the fact he had left his chambers a few hours earlier to get up to prayer.[9] After staying for ten days in a tent set up in the palace garden, Bayezid II went to stay in the former capital of Edirne.[8]
The Ottoman Imperial Council (Divan-ı Hümayun) convened after the quake and made decisions to deal with the effects of the disaster. Constantinople had to be reconstructed and an additional tax of 22 akçe would be taken from each household for the task, it was decided. With the decree issued by the Sultan after the earthquake, a ban was placed on construction on filled ground and it was ordered that all buildings to be built in the capital be made of wood-frame material.[5] Afterward, an empire-wide initiative was launched to reconstruct the city. Tens of thousands of workers, stonemasons and carpenters were brought to Istanbul from both Anatolia and Rumelia. Beginning on March 29, 1510, construction works in the city were undergone hastily and completed on June 1, 1510.[8]
Interpretations and prophecies
Due to the endless aftershocks and the destruction and loss caused by the earthquake, Ottoman historians and the people described the disaster as Minor Judgment Day (Kıyamet-i Suğra). This phrase comes from an Islamic eschatological tradition that associates earthquakes with the apocalypse, referencing the Surah Al-Zalzala, the 99th chapter of the Quran, which the arrival of the Last Judgment with a terrible earthquake.[10]
The earthquake was allegedly predicted by an unnamed Greek monk from Saint Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai while present in the Sultan‘s court.[2] European interpretations at the time viewed the earthquake as a sort of punishment, a punishment from God set upon the Turks for taking up arms against European Christians.[2] Similarly, Sultan Bayezid II saw it as a punishment from God, however he attributed the punishment to the wrongdoings of his ministers.[2] It has been suggested that the French astrologer and seer Nostradamus, who was alive at the time of the earthquake, may have referred to the 1509 earthquake in the stanza number II.52 of his book containing his prophecies.[11]
Of course. The 1509 Constantinople earthquake, historically known as the “Lesser Judgment” or “Little Apocalypse”, was one of the most devastating and consequential natural disasters in the history of the city (modern-day Istanbul).
Here is a detailed overview of the event.
Key Facts at a Glance
- Date: September 10, 1509 (Or September 14, sources vary slightly)
- Estimated Magnitude: 7.2 to 7.4 (on the modern moment magnitude scale)
- Epicenter: Located in the Sea of Marmara, just off the coast of Istanbul, near the Prince’s Islands.
- Casualties: Estimated between 5,000 to 13,000 people, with some historical accounts claiming even higher numbers.
- Significance: It caused catastrophic damage to the capital of the Ottoman Empire during the reign of Sultan Bayezid II and led to significant changes in building codes and disaster response.
Detailed Account of the Earthquake
1. The Event and Its Immediate Impact:
The earthquake struck just after nightfall, around 10 pm. It was not a single event but part of a sequence that lasted for 45 days, with severe aftershocks continuing for months. Contemporary chroniclers described a terrifying roar from the earth, followed by violent shaking that lasted for about four minutes—an exceptionally long time for a seismic event.
The damage was immense and widespread:
- Collapsed Buildings: Thousands of houses, mosques, churches, public baths, and markets were reduced to rubble. The city’s walls were heavily damaged.
Collapsed Buildings: Thousands of houses, mosques, churches, public baths, and markets were reduced to rubble,” points to a large-scale destruction of infrastructure during a conflict or disaster. Without more context about when and where this statement was made, it’s impossible to identify the specific event, but it could refer to situations like the destruction during the Syrian Civil War or the Israel-Hamas War in Gaza.
Examples of events matching this description:
- Gaza (2023-Present):Reports indicate that a substantial amount of infrastructure in Gaza, including homes, has been destroyed during the ongoing military conflict with Israel.
- Syrian Civil War (2011-Present):This conflict has resulted in the significant damage or destruction of historical sites, markets, and other buildings across Syria.
- Kosovo War (1998-1999):The conflict in Kosovo saw the destruction and razing of numerous mosques and other buildings.
To understand the specific event you are referring to, consider these questions:
- What is the source of this quote? Knowing the source will provide context about the event.
- Are there any dates or locations associated with the statement? This is the most crucial information for pinpointing the event.
- What is the broader context of the discussion? Was it a discussion about a specific war, a natural disaster, or another type of event?
- Tsunami: A subsequent tsunami (reported to be as high as 6-7 meters) inundated the coastal neighborhoods of the city, sweeping away homes and people.
- Fissures: Large cracks opened in the ground, swallowing buildings and people.
The statement “Fissures: Large cracks opened in the ground, swallowing buildings and people” is largely a dramatic exaggeration, often portrayed in fiction, as large, deep cracks that consume entire structures during earthquakes are rare. While ground fissures, or earth fissures, are real and can be dangerous, they are usually caused by excessive groundwater pumping, which leads to ground subsidence, or by landslides triggered by earthquakes or other factors, rather than the ground literally splitting open during a seismic event. Human activity, natural erosion, and unstable soil conditions also contribute to their formation.
Causes and Characteristics
- Groundwater Pumping:Extensive groundwater withdrawal can cause land subsidence and create large, long fissures in arid regions, especially in areas with fine-grained soils.
- Landslides:Landslides, which can be triggered by earthquakes, deforestation, or other factors, can create fissures on hillsides and cliffs.
- Tectonic Activity:While less common for large, swallowing fissures, earthquakes can cause surface cracks, though they are usually small.
- Erosion:Natural erosion and water seepage can weaken the ground, leading to deep rifts, as seen in some parts of China.
Dangers and Impacts
- Property Damage: Fissures can damage infrastructure like roads, canals, dams, and underground pipes.
- Threat to Life: While not to the degree often depicted in media, fissures are hazardous to people and livestock living on the surface.
- Economic Impact: Repairing damage caused by fissures can be very costly.
Reality vs. Fiction
- Fissures are a hazard, but the image of a gaping chasm opening during an earthquake to swallow everything is mostly a myth popularized by movies.
- In reality, damage is more often to structures on the surface rather than the ground itself, and fissures that do occur are often smaller and more localized.
2. The Human Cost:
The death toll was staggering for a pre-modern city. While exact numbers are impossible to verify, estimates range from a conservative 5,000 to a more commonly cited 10,000 or even 13,000. This represented a significant portion of the city’s population. The high casualties were due to the time of day (most people were indoors and asleep) and the collapse of predominantly stone and masonry buildings.
Kurdish insurgency in Turkey
The casualty figures for the Kurdish insurgency in Turkey between the years 2000 and 2016, show 13–18% of those killed were civilians. The data did not distinguish between civilians killed by Turkish forces vs those killed by PKK militants.[93]
| Source | Total | Turkish security forces | PKK militants | Civilians | Civilians % | Combatant:Civilian ratio |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UCDP | 5,790 | 1,573 | 3,465 | 752 | 13% | 6.7:1 |
| KIVE | 6,187 | 2,007 | 3,088 | 1,092 | 18% | 4.7:1 |
3. Damage to Landmarks:
While the great architectural marvels like the Hagia Sophia and the Fatih Mosque (built by Mehmed the Conqueror) sustained damage (notably the collapse of minarets and parts of domes), they were not completely destroyed. Their robust construction likely saved them. However, many other mosques, the iconic Beyazıt Tower (a fire watchtower), and large sections of the Topkapı Palace complex were severely damaged, terrifying the Sultan and his court.
4. The Sultan’s Response:
Sultan Bayezid II was deeply affected by the disaster. He initially lived in a tent in his palace gardens due to the fear of aftershocks. His response was swift and multifaceted:
- Relief Efforts: He ordered immediate aid for the victims and organized the cleanup of debris.
- Reconstruction: A massive reconstruction effort was launched. He issued a decree summoning 3,000 masons and 5,000 laborers from across the empire, particularly from Anatolia and the Balkans, to rebuild the city.
- New Building Codes: This was one of the earthquake’s most important legacies. The Sultan enacted some of the world’s first documented seismic building codes. Regulations prohibited the construction of buildings over two stories high and required wider streets. Builders were encouraged to use more wood in frame structures to add flexibility, a technique reminiscent of traditional Ottoman houses.
Geological Cause
The earthquake was a result of the complex tectonic activity in the region. Constantinople/Istanbul sits close to the North Anatolian Fault (NAF), a major strike-slip fault where the Anatolian Plate is being squeezed westward against the Eurasian Plate. The 1509 event is believed to have occurred on a secondary fault in the Sea of Marmara, part of the broader NAF system. This same tectonic setting makes modern Istanbul one of the world’s most at-risk megacities for a major earthquake.
Historical Significance
The 1509 earthquake was a pivotal moment for the Ottoman Empire:
- It was a major shock to the prestige and stability of the empire just 56 years after the Conquest of Constantinople.
part in fighting but were not officially members of Hamas or PIJ, nor political figures in Hamas such as mayors and government ministers whom Israel also considers legitimate targets (in violation of international law)”, indicating 17% of those dead were known to the IDF as combatants.[79][80][81] If accurate, the indicated civilian share of 83% would be unusually high by contemporary wartime standards.[80]
For mathematical inconsistencies[73] in the IDF data, and further criticism, see Casualties of the Israel–Hamas war – Israeli military claims.
Iraq war
See also: Casualties of the Iraq War
According to a 2010 assessment by John Sloboda of Iraq Body Count, a United Kingdom-based organization, American and Coalition forces (including Iraqi government forces) had killed at least 28,736 combatants as well as 13,807 civilians in the Iraq War, indicating a civilian to combatant casualty ratio inflicted by coalition forces of 1:2.[82] However, overall, figures by the Iraq Body Count from 20 March 2003 to 14 March 2013 indicate that of 174,000 casualties only 39,900 were combatants, resulting in a civilian casualty rate of 77%. Most civilians were killed by anti-government insurgents and unidentified third parties.[83]
The global coalition’s War against the Islamic State, from 2014, had led to as many as 50,000 ISIL combatant casualties by the end of 2016.[84] Airwars calculated that 8,200–13,275 civilians were killed in Coalition airstrikes, mainly up to the end of 2017, with especially high casualty rates during the Battle of Mosul.[85] An Associated Press investigation found that in the Battle of Mosul, of the >9,000 fatalities, between 42% and 60% were civilians.[86]
Other conflicts
War in Afghanistan
See also: Civilian casualties in the war in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
According to the Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs at Brown University, as of January 2015 roughly 92,000 people had been killed in the Afghanistan war, of which over 26,000 were civilians, for a civilian to combatant ratio of 1:2.5.[87]
Drone strikes in Pakistan
Main article: Drone strikes in Pakistan § Civilian casualties
The civilian casualty ratio for U.S. drone strikes in Pakistan conducted during 2004 and 2018 as part of the War on terror is notoriously difficult to quantify. In 2010, the U.S. itself put the number of civilians killed from drone strikes in the last two years at no more than 20 to 30, a total that is far too low according to a spokesman for the NGO CIVIC.[88] At the other extreme, Daniel L. Byman of the Brookings Institution suggested in 2009 that drone strikes may kill “10 or so civilians” for every militant killed, which would represent a civilian to combatant casualty ratio of 10:1. Byman argues that civilian killings constitute a humanitarian tragedy and create dangerous political problems, including damage to the legitimacy of the Pakistani government and alienation of the Pakistani populace from America.[89] An ongoing study by the New America Foundation finds non-militant casualty rates started high but declined steeply over time, from about 60% (3 out of 5) in 2004–2007 to less than 2% (1 out of 50) in 2012. In 2011, the study put the overall non-militant casualty rate since 2004 at 15–16%, or a 1:5 ratio, out of a total of between 1,908 and 3,225 people killed in Pakistan by drone strikes since 2004.[90]
Sri Lankan civil war
The civilian to combatant ratio in the Sri Lankan civil war was likely worse than 1:1.[4]
Mexican Revolution
Although it is estimated that over 1 million people died in the Mexican Revolution from 1910 to 1920, most died from disease and hunger as an indirect result of the war. Combat deaths are generally agreed to have totaled about 250,000. According to Eckhardt, these included 125,000 civilian deaths and 125,000 combatant deaths, creating a civilian-combatant death ratio of 1:1 among combat deaths.[91][92]
Kurdish insurgency in Turkey
The casualty figures for the Kurdish insurgency in Turkey between the years 2000 and 2016, show 13–18% of those killed were civilians. The data did not distinguish between civilians killed by Turkish forces vs those killed by PKK militants.[93]
| Source | Total | Turkish security forces | PKK militants | Civilians | Civilians % | Combatant:Civilian ratio |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UCDP | 5,790 | 1,573 | 3,465 | 752 | 13% | 6.7:1 |
| KIVE | 6,187 | 2,007 | 3,088 | 1,092 | 18% | 4.7:1 |
- The enormous financial cost of reconstruction drained the state treasury.
- It exposed the vulnerability of even the most powerful empires to natural forces, an event so severe it was interpreted in religious terms as a divine warning, hence its name “The Lesser Judgment Day.”
- The rebuilding effort, and the new architectural techniques it encouraged, shaped the physical layout of the city for centuries to come.
The 1509 Constantinople earthquake was a catastrophic natural disaster that caused massive loss of life and destruction, prompting a large-scale reconstruction effort and the implementation of pioneering anti-seismic building regulations that influenced Ottoman architecture.
