Vande Mataram will be played before Jana Gana Mana, the government has decided on a new rule for the national anthem, making it mandatory for everyone to stand.

New MHA Protocol on Vande Mataram and Jana Gana Mana 150th Anniversary of India’s National Song Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay

Key Points

• About:
  • He was one of the greatest novelists and poets of India.
  • He was born on 27^th June 1838 in the village of Kanthapura in the town of North 24 Parganas, Naihati, present day West Bengal.
  • He composed the song Vande Mataram in Sanskrit, which was a source of inspiration to the people in their freedom struggle.
  • In 1857, there was a strong revolt against the rule of East India Company but Bankim Chandra Chatterjee continued his studies and passed his B.A. Examination in 1859.
    • The Lieutenant Governor of Calcutta appointed Bankim Chandra Chatterjee as Deputy Collector in the same year.
  • He was in Government service for thirty-two years and retired in 1891.
  • He died on 8^th April, 1894.
• Contributions to India’s Freedom Struggle:
  • His epic Novel Anandamath – set in the background of the Sanyasi Rebellion (1770-1820), when Bengal was facing a famine too – made Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay an influential figure on the Bengali renaissance.
    • He kept the people of Bengal intellectually stimulated through his literary campaign.
    • India got its national song, Vande Mataram, from Anandamath.
  • He also founded a monthly literary magazine, Bangadarshan, in 1872, through which Bankim is credited with influencing the emergence of a Bengali identity and nationalism.
    • Bankim Chandra wanted the magazine to work as the medium of communication between the educated and the uneducated classes.

The Prime Minister of India paid tributes to Rabindranath Tagore on his 159^th Jayanti on 7^th May, 2020.

Key Points

• Rabindranath Tagore was born in Calcutta on May 7, 1861. He was also referred to as ‘Gurudev’, ‘Kabiguru’, and ‘Biswakabi’.
• Regarded as the outstanding creative artist of modern India and hailed by W.B Yeats, Rabindranath Tagore was a Bengali poet, novelist, and painter, who was highly influential in introducing Indian culture to the west.
• Rabindranath was an exceptional literary figure and a renowned polymath who singlehandedly reshaped the region’s literature and music.
• In 1913 Rabindranath Tagore was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for his work on Gitanjali.

The Nobel Foundation has declared the complete list of winners for 2019.

Field	Winners	Work Recognized
Physics	James Peebles	Theoretical discoveries in physical cosmology
	Michel Mayor Didier Queloz	Discovery of an exoplanet “ 51 Pegasi b” orbiting a solar-type star.
Chemistry	John B Goodenough, M Stanley Whittingham, Akira Yoshino	Development of lithium-ion batteries.
Physiology/ Medicine	William G. Kaelin Jr, Sir Peter J. Ratcliffe, Gregg L. Semenza	For discoveries on how cells sense and adapt to oxygen availability
Economic Sciences	Abhijit Banerjee, Esther Duflo, Michael Kremer	For the experimental approach to alleviating global poverty.
Literature	Peter Handke – 2019	For an influential work that with linguistic ingenuity has explored the periphery and the specificity of human experience.
	Olga Tokarczuk – 2018	For a narrative imagination that with encyclopedic passion represents the crossing of boundaries as a form of life.
Peace	Abiy Ahmed Ali (Prime Minister of Ethiopia)	For an initiative to resolve the border conflict with neighboring Eritrea.

About Nobel Prizes

• The will of the Swedish scientist Alfred Nobel established the five Nobel prizes in 1895.
• The Nobel Prizes are a set of recognition given to fields of Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine by The Nobel Foundation.
• The Nobel Foundation is a private institution established in 1900, has ultimate responsibility for fulfilling the intentions in Alfred Nobel’s will.
• The prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901.

Who selects the Nobel Laureates?

• In his last will and testament, Alfred Nobel specifically designated the institutions responsible for the prizes he wished to be established:
  • The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for the Nobel Prize in Physics and Chemistry,
  • Karolinska Institutet for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine,
  • The Swedish Academy for the Nobel Prize in Literature, and
  • A Committee of five persons to be elected by the Norwegian Parliament (Storting) for the Nobel Peace Prize.
• In 1968, Sveriges Riksbank established the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel.
  • The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences was given the task to select the Laureates in Economic Sciences starting in 1969.
• While the five Nobel Prizes are based on a fund set up from the wealth bequeathed by Alfred Nobel, the Economic Prize is based on a donation received by the Nobel Foundation in 1968 from Sveriges Riksbank.

The Prime Minister of India paid tributes to the martyrs of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919.

13^th April, 2020 marks the 101 years of the incident.

Key Points

• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, also called Massacre of Amritsar was an incident on April 13, 1919, in which British troops fired on a large crowd of unarmed Indians in an open space known as the Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar in Punjab.
  • The Jallianwala Bagh site in Amritsar is now a national monument.
• It killed several hundred people and wounded many hundreds more. It marked a turning point in India’s modern history, in that it left a permanent scar on Indo-British relations and was the precursor to Mahatma Gandhi’s full commitment to the cause of Indian nationalism and independence from Britain.
• Events Before the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

World leaders gathered at the Arc de Triomphe in Paris on November 11 to mark 100 years since the end of World War I (1914-18).

• November 11 is observed as Remembrance Day (also known as Armistice Day) since the end of the World War I to remember members of armed forces who died in the line of duty.
• The commemoration marked the signing of the Armistice that brought the fighting to an end at exactly 11 a.m. on Nov 11, 1918.

• The Paris Peace Forum, conceived by French President Macron, is intended to highlight the importance of international institutions in helping resolve conflicts, avert wars and spread prosperity.
• The aim of the forum is to show that there are lots of forces in the international system — states, NGOs, foundations, intellectuals, companies — which believe that there is a need for world of rules, an open world and a multilateral world.

World War I

• World War I was fought between the Allied Powers and the Central Powers. The main members of the Allied Powers were France, Russia, and Britain. The United States also fought on the side of the Allies after 1917. The main members of the Central Powers were Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.
• Reasons:
  • There was no single event that caused World War I. The war happened because of several different events that took place in the years building up to 1914.
  • Mutual Defense Alliances: Countries throughout Europe made mutual defence agreements. These treaties meant that if one country was attacked, allied countries were bound to defend them.
  • Imperialism: Before World War I, Africa and parts of Asia were points of contention among the European countries because of their raw materials. The increasing competition and desire for greater empires led to an increase in the confrontation that helped push the world into World War I.
  • Militarism: As the world entered the 20th century, an arms race had begun. By 1914, Germany had the greatest increase in military buildup. Great Britain and Germany both greatly increased their navies in this time period. This increase in militarism helped push the countries involved into war.
  • Nationalism: Much of the origin of the war was based on the desire of the Slavic peoples in Bosnia and Herzegovina to no longer be part of Austria Hungary but instead be part of Serbia. In this way, nationalism led directly to the War.
  • Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand: In June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, was shot while he was visiting Sarajevo in Bosnia. He was killed by a Serbian person, who thought that Serbia should control Bosnia instead of Austria. Because its leader had been shot, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. As a result:
    • Russia got involved as it had an alliance with Serbia.
    • Germany then declared war on Russia because Germany had an alliance with Austria-Hungary.
    • Britain declared war on Germany because of its invasion of neutral Belgium – Britain had agreements to protect both Belgium and France.
• Some of the major battles during the war included the First Battle of the Marne, Battle of the Somme, Battle of Tannenberg, Battle of Gallipoli, and the Battle of Verdun.
• The War ended on November 11, 1918, when a general armistice was agreed to by both sides.
• On June 28, 1919, World War I officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. The Treaty of Versailles signed on June 28, 1919, was an attempt to prevent the world from going into another war.
• The “war to end all wars” turned out to be the opposite. By ensuring Germany’s economic ruin and political humiliation, the post-war settlement provided fertile ground for World War II.

India’s Significance in WWI

• India being a former British colony played a vital role in helping Britain and its allies win over Germany and allies, a role that is often overlooked.
• Being a British colony, the Indian Army contributed a large number of soldiers to the European, Mediterranean and the Middle East conflicts of war in World War I.
• The Indian Army fought against the German Empire in East Africa and also on the Western Front.
• They served in places as diverse as France and Belgium, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Gallipoli, Palestine and Sinai.
• More than 70 thousand of the Indian soldiers who served British in World War I lost their lives. Sir Claude Auchinleck, Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army once said: ” Britain couldn’t have come through the wars if they hadn’t had the Indian Army.”
• As high as 100 million British Pounds was given by India to Britain to fund their war anticipating dominion status and home rule in return.
• The British raised men and money from India, as well as large supplies of food, cash, and ammunition, collected by British taxation policies. In return, the British promised to award self-rule to India at the end of the war which eventually was not delivered.

India Gate

• In 1931, British commemorated the war by constructing the arch known as India Gate in New Delhi designed by Edwin Lutyens.
• India Gate has been the focal point to commemorate over 70,000 Indian soldiers who lost their lives fighting for the British Army during World War I.

World War Memorial

• The Vice President inaugurated the First World War Memorial constructed by the Government of India at the town of Villers Guislain in France.
• It is the first national memorial for the Indian soldiers who died in France during World War I and features the Ashoka emblem.

Saffron Marigold Sacrifice

• The Marigold has become the symbol of sacrifice of Indian soldiers who died in World War I.
• This is a part of the ‘India Remembers’ Project initiated by United Service Institution of India (USI) which is a national security and defence services think tank based in New Delhi, India.
• Since the end of the First World War, poppy was adopted as the symbol of remembrance as it grew widely in fields in Europe where some of the major battles were fought.
• The Marigold joins the poppy as a symbol of sacrifice.
• The marigold was chosen because it is widely available and also because saffron is often seen as a colour of sacrifice.
• By the war’s end, expectations were high among the Indian populace that those measures would be eased and that India would be given more political autonomy. The Montagu-Chelmsford Report, presented to the British Parliament in 1918, did in fact recommend limited local self-government.

April 2019 marks the 100 years anniversary of Rowlatt Satyagraha which was started by Mahatma Gandhi in 1919.

• Rowlatt Satyagraha was in response to the British government enacting the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919, popularly known as the Rowlatt Act. Gandhiji called for a countrywide campaign against the Rowlatt Act.

Rowlatt Act

• This act was passed on the recommendations of Sedition Committee chaired by Sir Sidney Rowlatt.
• This act had been hurriedly passed in the Imperial Legislative Council despite the united opposition of the Indian members.
• It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.

When the armed conflict kicked off, the British Expeditionary Force in France was a small, as a fighting force. Reinforcing it was essential; thus that led to the deployment of the two Indian divisions. Rushed to the Western Front, Indian soldiers fought tenaciously to stop a German breakthrough. By the time Indian soldiers sailed out from Marseilles 14 months later, they and their fellow countrymen-138,608 Indians in all had helped to weaken Germany’s Schlieffen Plan.

Schlieffen Plan, It was a battle plan first proposed in 1905 by Alfred, Graf (count) von Schlieffen, chief of the German general staff, that was designed to allow Germany to wage a successful two-front war. The plan was heavily modified by Schlieffen’s successor, Helmuth von Moltke, prior to and during its implementation in World War I. Moltke’s changes, which included a reduction in the size of the attacking army, were blamed for Germany’s failure to win a quick victory.

With the 100th anniversary of the Armistice on 11th November 2018 and the inauguration of monuments to Indian soldiers in France, it is a contribution worth remembering. The broader impact of the war on India suffers from a lack of attention.

Why did India support British’s war efforts?

• Indian nationalism, at that time, was dominated by moderates who believed that Indian contribution to the British war efforts would result in British’s benevolence towards the natives and would grant them more constitutional reforms.
• Indian army was distant from the nationalist movement as magazines, newspapers were not allowed in the barracks and so they fought for the British Raj.

WW I’s significance for India

• The world war ended the myth of the indestructible power of the British Empire in India as the British faced many humiliating defeats during the war. This raised the self-confidence among Indians.
• The soldiers that returned after war raised the morale of masses.
• India supported Britain in the world war on its promise of fighting for democracy but serving India with Rowlatt Act immediately after the war served as an eye-opener for Indians. This led to the rise of national consciousness and soon Non-Cooperation movement was launched.
• Formation of USSR after the war also led to the rise of communism in India with the formation of CPI and imparted a socialist influence on the freedom struggle.

What motivated men to fight in war thousands of miles from home?

• Indian soldiers saw it as their duty to bring honour to their clan or caste, by fighting bravely on the battlefield.
• The pay for an Indian infantryman was a modest 11 rupees a month, but the additional income earned from participating in the war would have been useful to a hard-pressed peasant family so, money may have been one motive for enlistment.
• Indian soldiers frequently expressed a strong sense of personal duty to the King-Emperor George V, who is mentioned in their letters more often than anyone else.

The Indian national movement and the country’s socio-economic development did not take place in isolation. World War I linked India to global events in profound ways with far-reaching consequences.

Political Impact

• In India, the return of Punjabi soldiers after the end of the war also aroused political activity against colonial rule in that province, which became the spark for further wider protests. Punjab which supplied a large proportion of the troops turned into an epicenter of nationalism after the war.
• There was a surge of nationalism and rise of mass civil disobedience when the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms’ failed to deliver on the expectation of home rule that had led to popular support for the British war effort.
• As the war dragged on, casualties mounted and recruitment methods grew more coercive, resentment grew to fuel nationalism.

Social Impact

• Between 1911 and 1921, literacy rates increased significantly in heavily recruited communities. This effect is strongest for men of military age, which is consistent with the notion that soldiers learned to read and write on their foreign campaigns.
• Respect for particular communities who participated in the war grew in the society.
• The huge number of non-combatants were also recruited from India- such as nurses, doctors etc. leaving Indian society deprived of essential services in a situation where such skills were already scarce in India.

Economic Impact

• There was a sharp increase in demand for Indian goods in Britain as production capabilities in Britain itself were diverted to the war effort.
• However, the disruption in shipping lanes because of the war also meant that Indian industry faced inconvenience because of the shortage of inputs that were earlier imported from Britain and Germany. There was excess demand as well as supply bottlenecks.
• Another result was inflation. Industrial prices nearly doubled in the six years after 1914. Accelerating prices benefitted Indian industry.
• Farm prices rose as well, but at a slower pace than industrial prices. The internal terms of trade(ratio of export prices to import prices) moved against agriculture. This trend continued for most of the next few decades, and especially during the collapse in global commodity prices during the Great Depression.
• Demand for food supplies, particularly cereals, led to rampant food inflation.
• Exports of cash crops like jute suffered due to the loss of the European market. Meanwhile, rising military demand for jute products compensated for the decline in civilian demand with jute mills in Bengal establishing monopolies; skewed income distribution grew even more so.
• The drain on the Indian economy in the form of cash, kind and loans to the British government came to about 367 million pounds.
• Domestic manufacturing sectors such as cotton benefited from the decline in British goods that had dominated the pre-war market.
• The steel sector benefited as well. For instance, the ailing Tata steel mills were handed a lifeline in the form of a contract to supply rails to the Mesopotamian campaign.
• British investment was rerouted to the UK, creating opportunities for Indian capital. In short, the war economy boosted Indian capitalism in some ways at least.

Response to Gandhi’s Call

• Mahatma Gandhi wanted non-violent civil disobedience against such unjust laws, which would start with a hartal on 6 April 1919.
• But before it could be launched, there were large-scale violent, anti-British demonstrations in Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, Ahmedabad, etc. ‘
• Especially in Punjab, the situation became explosive due to wartime repression, forcible recruitments, and ravages of disease.
• In towns across North and West India, life came to a standstill, as shops shut down and schools closed in response to the bandh call.
• During the intense anti-British demonstrations, Punjab also witnessed the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

• On April 9, 1919, two nationalist leaders, Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal, were arrested by the British officials without any provocation except that they had addressed protest meetings, and taken to some unknown destination.
• This caused resentment among the Indian protestors who came out in thousands on April 10 to show their solidarity with their leaders.
• Soon the protests turned violent because the police resorted to firing in which some of the protestors were killed. To curb any future protest government put martial law in place and law and order in Punjab was handed over to Brigadier-General Dyer.
• On 13th April, Baisakhi day, a large crowd of people mostly from neighboring villages, unaware of the prohibitory orders in the Amritsar gathered in the Jallianwala Bagh.
• Brigadier- General Dyer arrived on the scene with his men. The troops surrounded the gathering under orders from General Dyer and blocked the only exit point and opened fire on the unarmed crowd killing more than 1000 unarmed men, women, and children.

Hunter Commission

• The government formed a committee of inquiry to investigate the Jallianwala Bagh shootings.
• On October 14, 1919, the Government of India announced the formation of the Disorders Inquiry Committee.
• The committee was commonly known as Hunter Commission after the name of chairman, Lord William Hunter. It also had Indian members.
• In the final report submitted in March 1920, the committee unanimously condemned Dyer’s actions.
• However, the Hunter Committee did not impose any penal or disciplinary action against General Dyer.

Nationalist Response

• Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest.
• Mahatma Gandhi gave up the title of Kaiser-i-Hind, bestowed by the British for his work during the Boer War.
• Gandhi was overwhelmed by the atmosphere of total violence and withdrew the movement on April 18, 1919.
• The Indian National Congress appointed its own non-official committee that included Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, Abbas Tyabji, M.R. Jayakar, and Gandhi to look into the shootings.
  • Congress put forward its own view. This view criticized Dyer’s act as inhuman and also said that there was no justification in the introduction of the martial law in Punjab.
  • The acts were met by widespread anger and discontent among Indians, notably in the Punjab region. Gandhi in early April called for a one-day general strike (Rowlatt Satyagraha) throughout the country.
  • In Amritsar the news that prominent Indian leaders (Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew) had been arrested and banished from that city sparked violent protests on April 10, in which soldiers fired upon civilians and angry mobs killed several foreign nationals.
  • A force of several dozen troops commanded by Brig. Gen. Reginald Edward Harry Dyer was given the task of restoring order. Among the measures taken was a ban on public gatherings.
• On the Date of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
  • On the afternoon April 13, a crowd of at least 10,000 men, women, and children gathered in the Jallianwala Bagh, which was nearly completely enclosed by walls and had only one exit.
  • It is not clear how many people there were protesters who were defying the ban on public meetings and how many had come to the city from the surrounding region to celebrate Baisakhi, a spring festival.
  • Dyer and his soldiers arrived and sealed off the exit. Without warning, the troops opened fire on the crowd, reportedly shooting hundreds of rounds until they ran out of ammunition.
• After the Incident
  • The Bengali poet and Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore renounced the knighthood that he had received in 1915. Gandhi soon began organizing his first large-scale and sustained nonviolent protest (satyagraha) campaign, the Non Cooperation Movement (1920–22).
  • The then government of India ordered an investigation of the incident (the Hunter Commission), which in 1920 censured Dyer for his actions and ordered him to resign from the military.

• Besides all his literary achievements he was also a philosopher and educationist who in 1921 established the Vishwa-Bharati University, a university that challenged conventional education.
• Rabindranath Tagore was a good friend of Mahatma Gandhi and is said to have given him the title of Mahatma.
• Tagore had always stressed that unity in diversity is the only possible way for India’s national integration.
• He not only gave the national anthems for two countries, India and Bangladesh, but also inspired a Ceylonese student of his, to pen and compose the national anthem of Sri Lanka.

• • • While it carried Tagore’s writings – including his first full-length novel Chokher Bali – the ‘new’ Bangadarshan retained its original philosophy, nurturing the nationalistic spirit.
    • During the Partition of Bengal (1905), the magazine played a vital role in giving an outlet to the voices of protest and dissent. Tagore’s Amar Sonar Bangla – the national anthem of Bangladesh now – was first published in Bangadarshan.
• Other Literary Contributions:
  • He had studied Sanskrit and was very interested in the subject, but later took on the responsibility to make Bengali the language of the masses. However, his first published work – a novel – was in English.
  • His famous novels include Kapalkundala (1866), Debi Choudhurani, Bishabriksha (The Poison Tree), Chandrasekhar (1877), Rajmohan’s wife and Krishnakanter Will.

Sanyasi Rebellion

• The Sanyasi Uprisings took place in Bengal between the periods of 1770- 1820s.
• The Sanyasis rose in rebellion after the great famine of 1770 in Bengal which caused acute chaos and misery.
• However, the immediate cause of the rebellion was the restrictions imposed by the British upon pilgrims visiting holy places among both Hindus and Muslims.

• He composed Vande Mataram in Sanskrit, of which the first two verses were adopted as National song, and it was a source of inspiration to the people in their freedom struggle.
• One of his and Indian literature’s finest texts, Anandamath (1882), which is set in the background of the Sanyasi Rebellion (1770-1820), also contains Vande Mataram.
  • The Sanyasis rose in rebellion after the great famine of 1770 in Bengal which caused acute chaos and misery.
• He also founded a monthly literary magazine, Bangadarshan, in 1872, through which Bankim is credited with influencing the emergence of a Bengali identity and nationalism.
• His other notable works include Durgeshnandini (1865) Kapalkundala (1866), Krishnakanter Will (1878), Devichaudhrani (1884), Bishabriksha (The Poison Tree), Chandrasekhar (1877) and Rajmohan’s wife.
  • He also served as a lawyer and district judge.

• Early Life: Born on 27th June 1838 in Naihati, West Bengal, Bankim was a brilliant student and joined British service after completing his studies. 
• Nationalism and Literature: Through works like Anandamath (banned by the British), which narrates the Sanyasi Rebellion, Bankim became synonymous with India’s struggle for independence. 

National Emblem

Recently, many former bureaucrats have opposed the Central Vista redevelopment project.

Key Points

• The Union Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs proposed a Central Vista redevelopment project in 2019.
• The project envisages
  • Constructing a triangular Parliament building next to the existing one.
  • Constructing Common Central Secretariat.
  • Revamping of the 3-km-long Rajpath — from Rashtrapati Bhavan to India Gate.
    • North and South Block to be repurposed as museums.
• The government’s argument for revamping Central Vista:
  • The Parliament building’s facilities and infrastructure are inadequate to meet the current demand.
  • The offices of the Central Government are spread over different locations which affects inter-departmental coordination, and unnecessary travel leading to congestion and pollution.
  • Most of the existing buildings have outlived their structural lives.

Central Vista

• Currently, the Central Vista of New Delhi houses Rashtrapati Bhawan, Parliament House, North and South Block, India Gate, National Archives among others.
• In December, 1911, King George V made an announcement in Delhi Durbar (a grand assembly) to shift the capital of India from Calcutta to Delhi.
  • Delhi Durbar was hosted to mark the coronation of King George V.
• The task of constructing a new city was given to Edwin Lutyens, known for his strong adherence to European Classicism and Herbert Baker, a prominent architect in South Africa.
  • Herbert Baker is also the architect of the Union buildings at Pretoria, South Africa.
• Parliament House building was designed by both Lutyens and Baker.
• Rashtrapati Bhavan was designed by Edwin Lutyens.
• The Secretariat which includes both north and south block was designed by Herbert Baker.

What do we know about the National Emblem of India?

• About:
  • The State Emblem of India is the national emblem of the Republic of India and is used by the union government, many state governments, and other government agencies.

History:

Introduction

• The Great Mauryan ruler Ashoka embraced Buddhism (as a part of shraman tradition) and the immense Buddhist missionary activities that followed during his rule paved the way for the development of Mauryan sculptural and architectural styles.
• King Ashoka patronized the shraman tradition in the third century BCE.
  • The shraman tradition refers to several Indian religious movements parallel to but separate from the historical vedic religion.
  • It includes Jainism, Buddhism, and others such as Ajivikas, and Carvakas.

Background

• In 321 BC, Chandragupta Maurya, with the help of Chanakya (author of Arthashasthra) founded the Mauryan dynasty after overthrowing Nanda Dynasty.
• The Mauryan Empire was the first most powerful Indian empire to bring the entire Indian subcontinent under a single rule.
  • The Mauryan empire under Chandragupta Maurya spread its boundaries into Central Asia and Persia.
• Expansion of Mauryan Empire: Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son Bindusara in 298 BC who expanded the kingdom over most of present-day India, except Kalinga.
• Mauryan Dynasty under Ashoka: Bindusara’s kingdom was inherited by his son Ashoka the Great in 274 B.C.
• Kalinga Invasion: During the invasion of Kalinga, Ashoka renounced bloodshed and adopted the policy of Ahimsa and adopted Buddhism.

Mauryan Art and Architecture

Mauryan architecture can be divided into Court Art and Popular Art.

Mauryan Court Art: Implies architectural works (in the form of pillars, stupas and palaces) commissioned by Mauryan rulers for political as well as religious reasons.

• Palaces: Greek historian, Megasthenes, described the palaces of the Mauryan empire as one of the greatest creations of mankind and Chinese traveler Fa Hien called Mauryan palaces as god gifted monuments.
  • Persian Influence: The palace of Chandragupta Maurya was inspired by the Achaemenid palaces at Persepolis in Iran.
    • Material Used: Wood was the principal building material used during the Mauryan Empire.
    • Examples: The Mauryan capital at Pataliputra, Ashoka’s palace at Kumrahar, Chandragupta Maurya’s palace.
• Pillars: Ashoka pillars, (usually made of chunar sandstone), as a symbol of the state, assumed a great significance in the entire Mauryan Empire.
  • Objective: The main objective was to disseminate the Buddhist ideology and court orders in the entire Mauryan empire.
  • Language: While most Ashoka pillar edicts were in Pali and Prakrit language, few were written in Greek or Aramaic language also.
  • Architecture: Mauryan pillars mainly comprise of four parts:
    • Shaft: A long shaft formed the base and was made up of a single piece of stone or monolith.
    • Capital: On top of shaft lay the capital, which was either lotus-shaped or bell-shaped.
    • Abacus: Above the capital, there was a circular or rectangular base known as the abacus.
    • Capital Figure: All the capital figures (usually animals like a bull, lion, elephant, etc) are vigorous and carved standing on a square or circular abacus.
  • Similarities with Persian (Achamenian) Pillars
    • Polished Stones and Motifs: Both Maurya and Achaemenian pillars, used polished stones and have certain common sculpture motifs such as the lotus.
    • Proclamations: Maurya’s idea of inscribing proclamations (related to Buddhist teachings and court orders) on pillars has its origin in Persian pillars.
    • Third Person: Inscriptions of both empires begin in the third person and then move to the first person.
  • Differences with Persian (Achamenian) Pillars
    • The Capital Figure: It was absent in Mauryan pillars of the Kumhrar hall whereas pillars at Persepolis have the elaborate capital figures.
    • The Shape and Ornamentation: The shape of Mauryan lotus is different from the Persian pillar.
    • Pillar Surface: Most of the Persian pillars have a fluted/ ridged surface while the Mauryan pillars have a smooth surface.
    • Architectural Scheme: The Achaemenid pillars were generally part of some larger architectural scheme, and bit complex and complicated, while the Ashokan pillars were simple and independent freestanding monuments.
    • Shaft: Unlike Mauryan shafts which are built of monolith (single piece of stone), Persian/Achaemenian shafts were built of separate segments of stones (aggregated one above the other).

Pillar Edicts and Inscriptions

• Ashoka’s 7 pillar edicts: These were found at Topra (Delhi), Meerut, Kausambhi, Rampurva, Champaran, Mehrauli:
  • Pillar Edict I: Asoka’s principle of protection to people.
  • Pillar Edict II: Defines Dhamma as the minimum of sins, many virtues, compassion, liberality, truthfulness, and purity.
  • Pillar Edict III: Abolishes sins of harshness, cruelty, anger, pride, etc.
  • Pillar Edict IV: Deals with duties of Rajukas.
  • Pillar Edict V: List of animals and birds which should not be killed on some days and another list of animals which have not to be killed at all.
  • Pillar Edict VI: Dhamma policy
  • Pillar Edict VII: Works done by Asoka for Dhamma policy.
• Minor Pillar Inscriptions
  • Rummindei Pillar Inscription: Asokha’s visit to Lumbini & exemption of Lumbini from tax.
  • Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription, Nepal: It mentions that Asoka increased the height of stupa of Buddha Konakamana to its double size.
• Major Pillar Inscriptions
  • Sarnath Lion Capital: Near Varanasi was built by Ashoka in commemoration of Dhammachakrapravartana or the first sermon of Buddha.
  • Vaishali Pillar, Bihar, single lion, with no inscription.
  • Sankissa Pillar, Uttar Pradesh
  • Lauriya-Nandangarth, Champaran, Bihar.
  • Lauriya-Araraj, Champaran, Bihar
  • Allahabad pillar, Uttar Pradesh.

• Stupa: Stupas were burial mounds prevalent in India from the vedic period.
  • Architecture: Stupas consist of a cylindrical drum with a circular anda and a harmika and a chhatra on the top.
    • Anda: Hemispherical mound symbolic of the mound of dirt used to cover Buddha’s remains (in many stupas actual relics were used).
    • Harmika: Square railing on top of the mound.
    • Chhatra: Central pillar supporting a triple umbrella form.
  • Material Used: The core of the stupa was made of unburnt brick while the outer surface was made by using burnt bricks, which were then covered with a thick layer of plaster and medhi and the toran were decorated with wooden sculptures.
  • Examples:
    • Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the most famous of the Ashokan stupas.
    • Piprahwa Stupa in Uttar Pradesh is the oldest one.
    • Stupas built after the death of Buddha: Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethapida, Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalivana.
    • Stupa at Bairat, Rajasthan: Grand stupa with a circular mound and a circumambulatory path.

Depiction of Buddha at Stupas

• Symbols: In the early stages, Buddha was represented through symbols that represented the different events of Buddha’s life like footprints, lotus thrones, chakras, stupas, etc.
• Jataka Stories: Later on, Jataka stories (stories associated with the previous birth of Buddha) were portrayed on the railings and torans of the stupas.
  • The Jataka stories that find frequent depiction are Chhadanta Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Vessantara Jataka, Vidur Jataka and Shama Jataka.
• The chief events from Buddha’s life which are narrated in the arts are birth, renunciation, enlightenment, the first sermon (dharmachakrapravartana) and mahaparinirvana (death).

• • • In the original, there are four lions, standing back to back, mounted on an abacus with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull and a lion separated by intervening wheels over a bell-shaped lotus.
    • Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the capital is crowned by the Wheel of the Law (Dharma Chakra).
• Emblem Adopted:
  • In the State emblem, adopted by the Government of India on 26^th January 1950, only three lions are visible, the fourth being hidden from view.
  • The wheel appears in relief in the centre of the abacus with a bull on right and a horse on left and the outlines of other wheels on extreme right and left.
  • The bell-shaped lotus has been omitted.

What are the salient features of the National Emblem of India?

• The State emblem of India is the official seal of the Government of India.
• Four animals are shown representing four directions:
  • A Galloping Horse: West

Where does the Origin of Buddhism Lie?

• Buddhism started in India over 2,600 years ago as a way life that had a potential of transforming a person.
  • It is one of the important religions of South and South-Eastern Asian countries.
• The religion is based upon the teachings, life experiences of its founder Siddhartha Gautam, born in circa 563 BCE.
  • He was born into royal family of Sakya clan who ruled from Kapilvastu, in Lumbini which is situated near the Indo-Nepal Border.
• At the age of 29, Gautama left home and rejected his life of riches and embraced a lifestyle of asceticism, or extreme self-discipline.
  • After 49 consecutive days of meditation, Gautama attained Bodhi (enlightenment) under a pipal tree at Bodhgaya, a village in Bihar.
• Buddha gave his first sermon in the village of Sarnath, near the city of Benares in UP. This event is known as Dharma-Chakra-Pravartana (turning of the wheel of law).
  • He died at the age of 80 in 483 BCE at a place called Kushinagara a town in UP. The event is known as Mahaparinibban.

What are the Tenets of Buddhism?

• Buddha asked his followers to avoid the two extremes of indulgence in worldly pleasure and the practice of strict abstinence and asceticism.
  • He ascribed instead the ‘Madhyam Marg’ or the middle path which was to be followed.
• According to him everyone was responsible for their own happiness in life, stressing upon the individualistic component of Buddhism.
• The main teachings of Buddhism are encapsulated in the basic concept of four noble truths or ariya-sachchani and eightfold path or astangika marg.
  • Four noble truths:
    • Suffering (dukkha) is the essence of the world.
    • Every suffering has a cause – Samudya.
    • Suffering could be extinguished – Nirodha.
    • It can be achieved by following the Atthanga Magga (Eight Fold Path).
  • Eight-Fold Paths: It consists of various interconnected activities related to knowledge, conduct, and meditative practices.
    • Right view
    • Right intention
    • Right speech
    • Right action
    • Right livelihood
    • Right mindfulness
    • Right effort
    • Right concentration
• Dukkha and its extinction are central to the Buddha’s doctrine. Suffering is not limited to the actual pain but also to the potential to experience these things.
• The essence of Buddhism is the attainment of enlightenment. It points to a way of life that avoids self-indulgence and self-denial. There is no supreme god or deity in Buddhism.
• The ultimate goal of Buddha’s teaching was the attainment of nibbana which was not a place but an experience, and could be attained in this life.
• Buddha also established code of conduct both for the monastic order and the laymen to follow which are also known as the Five Precepts or Pancasil and refrain from them.
  • Violence
  • stealing
  • sexual misconduct
  • lying or gossip
  • taking intoxicating substances e.g. drugs or drink

What are the Major Buddhist Texts?

• The Buddha’s teaching was oral. He taught for 45 years, adapting the teaching to suit the group he was addressing.
  • The Sangha memorized the teachings, and there were group recitations at festivals and special occasions.
• The teachings were rehearsed and authenticated at the First Council and were divided in Three Pitakas in 483 BC.
  • His teachings were written down around 25 B.C.E. in Pali.
• Three Pitakas
  • The Vinaya Pitaka consists of rules of conduct and discipline applicable to the monastic life of the monks and nuns.
  • The Sutta Pitakaconsists of the main teaching or Dhamma of Buddha. It is divided into five Nikayas or collections:
    • Digha Nikaya
    • Majjhima Nikaya
    • Samyutta Nikaya
    • Anguttara Nikaya
    • Khuddaka Nikaya
  • The Abhidamma Pitaka is a philosophical analysis and systematization of the teaching and the scholarly activity of the monks.
  • Other important Buddhist texts include Divyavadana, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Milind Panha etc.

What Role did the Buddhist Councils Play?

• Buddhist Councils marked important turning points in the early Buddhism.
• These councils resulted in sectarian clashes and the eventual Great Schism that resulted in the two major schools, Theravada and Mahayana.
• In total, 4 major Buddhist councils were convened:
  • First Council
    • It was held soon after the Mahaparinirvan of the Buddha, around 483 BC under the patronage of King Ajatshatru and was presided by Mahakasyapa, a monk.
    • The council was held in the Sattapani cave at Rajgriha.
    • The council was held with the purpose of preserving Buddha’s teachings (Sutta) and rules for disciples.
      • During this council, the teachings of Buddha were divided into three Pitakas.
  • Second Council
    • It was held in Vaishali, a village in Bihar under the patronage of the king Kalasoka in 383 BC. It was presided by Sabakami.
  • Third Council
    • It was held in 250 BC in Patliputra under the patronage of Ashoka and was presided by Moggaliputta Tissa.
  • Forth Council
    • It was held in 72 AD at Kundalvana, Kashmir. It was presided by Vasumitra, while Asvaghosa was his deputy under the patronage of King Kanishka of Kushan Empire.
    • Buddhism was divided into two sects namely Mahayan and Hinayan.

What are the Different Schools of Buddhism?

• Mahayana:
  • It is one of the two main schools of Buddhism.
  • The term Mahayana is a Sanskrit word which literally means “Great Vehicle”.
  • It believes in the heavenliness of Buddha and Idol worship of Buddha and Bodhisattvas embodying Buddha Nature.
  • It originated in northern India and Kashmir and then spread east into Central Asia, East Asia and some areas of Southeast Asia.
  • Buddhist schools embedded in China, Korea, Tibet and Japan belong to the Mahayana tradition.
• Hinayana
  • Literally Lesser vehicle, It believes in the original teaching of Buddha or Doctrine of elders.
  • It does not believe in Idol worship and tries to attain individual salvation through self discipline and meditation.
  • Theravada is a Hinayana sect.
• Theravada
  • It is the most ancient branch of extant Buddhism today.
  • It remains closest to the original teachings of the Buddha.
  • Theravada Buddhism developed in Sri Lanka and subsequently spread to the rest of Southeast Asia.
  • It is the dominant form of religion in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
• Vajrayana
  • Vajrayana means “The Vehicle of the Thunderbolt”, also known as tantric Buddhism.
  • This Buddhist school developed in India around 900 CE.
  • It is grounded on esoteric elements and very complex set of rituals compared with the rest of the Buddhist schools.
• Zen
  • It is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty as the Chan school of Chinese Buddhism in and later developed into various schools.
  • It spread to Japan in 7^th century C.E.
  • Meditation is the most distinctive feature of this Buddhist tradition.

How did Buddhism Spread in Ancient India?

• Buddha had two kinds of disciples – monks (bhikshus) and lay worshippers (upasikas).
• The monks were organized into the Sangha for the purpose of spreading his teachings.
  • The Sangha was governed on democratic lines and was empowered to enforce discipline among its members.
• Owing to the organised efforts made by the Sangha, Buddhism made rapid progress in North India even during Buddha’s life time.
• After the death of Buddha, his followers traversed on his path of meditation and roamed throughout the countryside.
• For 200 years Buddhism remained overshadowed by their Hindu counterparts until the advent of Great Mauryan King – Ashoka.
  • After the bloodbath in his Kalinga conquest, emperor Ashoka decided to give up the policy of worldly conquest and adopted Dhamma conquest.
  • Ashoka during the third Buddhist council dispatched various Buddhist missions to different areas such as Gandhara, Kashmir, Greece, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Egypt, and Thailand.
• Through his missionary effort Ashoka spread Buddhism into West Asia and Ceylon. Thus a local religious sect was transformed into a world religion.

What is the Contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture?

• The concept of ahimsa was its chief contribution. Later, it became one of the cherished values of our nation.
• Its contribution to the art and architecture of India was notable. The  Bharhut and Gaya are wonderful pieces of architecture.
• It promoted education through residential universities like those at Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramasila.
• The language of Pali and other local languages developed through the teachings of Buddhism.
• It had also promoted the spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia.

How has Buddhism Acted as a Way of Soft Diplomacy?

• Share of Cultural and Moral Values: The Buddhist faith, due to its emphasis on peaceful co-existence and its wide pan-Asian presence, lends itself well to soft-power diplomacy.
  • Buddhism in India as a Soft Power is different from the conventional sense of the term. India talks about shared cultural development instead of export of culture.
  • The values of peace, accommodation, inclusiveness, and compassion that are part of our societies can be attributed to the influence of the teachings of Lord Buddha and Buddhism.
• Strengthening Ties with Asian Countries: The ideals of Buddhism continue to intersect with the political and economic contexts of many Asian nations with 22% of the world’s population.
  • Buddhism can act as an intensifying factor for Asian emotional bonding and connectivity as it is embedded into their “nationalistic” thinking and actions.
  • India has in its favour at the moment an abundance of resources by way of pilgrimage sites, the presence of the Dalai Lama, and international goodwill, as well as the right intentions.
• International Buddhist Conclave: The Ministry of Tourism organises Buddhist Conclave every alternate year (since 2004) with the objective of promoting India as a Buddhist Destination and major markets around the globe.
  • In 2018, the conclave witnessed the participation of the delegates from Bangladesh, Indonesia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and 29 other countries.
• The animals seem to follow each other turning the wheel of existence till eternity.
• The words Satyameva Jayate from Mundaka Upanishad, meaning ‘Truth Alone Triumphs’, are inscribed below the abacus in Devanagari Script.
• The Capital is crowned by the Wheel of the Law (Dharma Chakra)
• The four Lions symbolise Buddha spreading Dharma in all directions.
  • It was built in the commemoration of the first sermon by Buddha known as Dharmachakrapravartna.
• Legal Provisions:
  • State Emblem of India (Prohibition of Improper Use) Act 2005 and the State Emblem of India (Regulation of Use) Rules 2007:
    • According to these rules, the National Emblem of India can only be used as per provisions of the State Emblem of India (Prohibition of Improper Use) Act 2005 and any unauthorized use is punishable under law.
    • There is a punishment for imprisonment of up to 2 years or a fine up to Rs 5000 if someone violates the law.
• Usage:

• On the Letterheads of the Central Government, State Government and other government agencies.
• On the Currency of India
• On the Passports of India
• The Ashoka Chakra in the National Flag is taken from the National Emblem
• Buildings:
  • Rashtrapati Bhawan
  • Parliament House

• The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial court and the final court of appeal under the Constitution of India, the highest constitutional court, with the power of judicial review.
• India is a federal State and has a single and unified judicial system with three tier structure, i.e. Supreme Court, High Courts and Subordinate Courts.

What is the Brief History of the Supreme Court of India?

• The promulgation of Regulating Act of 1773 established the Supreme Court of Judicature at Calcutta as a Court of Record, with full power & authority.
• It was established to hear and determine all complaints for any crimes and also to entertain, hear and determine any suits or actions in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
• The Supreme Courts at Madras and Bombay were established by King George – III in 1800 and 1823 respectively.
• The India High Courts Act 1861 created High Courts for various provinces and abolished Supreme Courts at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay and also the Sadar Adalats in Presidency towns.
• These High Courts had the distinction of being the highest Courts for all cases till the creation of Federal Court of India under the Government of India Act 1935.
• The Federal Court had jurisdiction to solve disputes between provinces and federal states and hear appeal against Judgements from High Courts.
• After India attained independence in 1947, the Constitution of India came into being on 26 January 1950. The Supreme Court of India also came into existence and its first sitting was held on 28 January 1950.
• The law declared by the Supreme Court is binding on all Courts within the territory of India.
• It has the power of judicial review – to strike down the legislative and executive action contrary to the provisions and the scheme of the constitution, the distribution of power between Union and States or inimical to the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution.

What are the Constitutional Provisions?

• The Indian constitution provides for a provision of Supreme Court under Part V (The Union) and Chapter 6 (The Union Judiciary).
• Articles 124 to 147 in Part V of the Constitution deal with the organisation, independence, jurisdiction, powers and procedures of the Supreme Court.
• The Indian constitution under Article 124(1) states that there shall be a Supreme Court of India constituting of a Chief Justice of India (CJI) and, until Parliament by law prescribes a larger number, of not more than seven other Judges.
• The Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of India can broadly be categorised into original jurisdiction, appellate jurisdiction and advisory jurisdiction. However, there are other multiple powers of the Supreme Court.

What is the Organisational Structure of the Supreme Court?

• At present, the Supreme Court consists of thirty-one judges (one chief justice and thirty other judges).
  • Supreme Court (Number of Judges) Bill of 2019 has added four judges to strength. It increased the judicial strength from 31 to 34, including the CJI.
• Originally, the strength of the Supreme Court was fixed at eight (one chief justice and seven other judges).
• The Parliament is authorised to regulate them.
• Seat of Supreme Court
  • The Constitution declares Delhi as the seat of the Supreme Court. It also authorises the CJI to appoint other place or places as seat of the Supreme Court.
  • He can take decision in this regard only with the approval of the President. This provision is only optional and not compulsory. This means that no court can give any direction either to the President or to the Chief Justice to appoint any other place as the seat of the Supreme Court.
• Appointment of Judges
  • The judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President. The CJI is appointed by the President after consultation with such judges of the Supreme Court and high courts as he deems necessary.
    • The other judges are appointed by the President after consultation with the CJI and such other judges of the Supreme Court and the high courts as he deems necessary. The consultation with the chief justice is obligatory in the case of appointment of a judge other than Chief justice.
  • Appointment of Chief Justice From 1950 to 1973: The practice has been to appoint the senior most judge of the Supreme Court as the chief justice of India. This established convention was violated in 1973 when A N Ray was appointed as the Chief Justice of India by superseding three senior judges. Again in 1977, M U Beg was appointed as the chief justice of India by superseding the then senior-most judge.
    • This discretion of the government was curtailed by the Supreme Court in the Second Judges Case (1993), in which the Supreme Court ruled that the senior most judge of the Supreme Court should alone be appointed to the office of the Chief Justice of India.

What is the Controversy over Consultation and Evolution of Collegium system?

• The Supreme Court has given different interpretations of the word ‘consultation’ in the above mentioned provisions.
  • In the First Judges case (1982), the Court held that consultation does not mean concurrence and it only implies exchange of views.
  • In the Second Judges case (1993), the Court reversed its earlier ruling and changed the meaning of the word consultation to concurrence.
  • In the Third Judges case (1998), the Court opined that the consultation process to be adopted by the Chief Justice of India requires ‘consultation of plurality judges’.
    • The sole opinion of the CJI does not constitute the consultation process. He should consult a collegium of four senior most judges of the Supreme Court and even if two judges give an adverse opinion, he should not send the recommendation to the government.
    • The court held that the recommendation made by the chief justice of India without complying with the norms and requirements of the consultation process are not binding on the government.

What is Collegium System?

• Collegium system was born through “three judges case” and it is in practice since 1998. It is used for appointments and transfers of judges in High courts and Supreme Courts.
• There is no mention of the Collegium either in the original Constitution of India or in successive amendments

Who Heads the Collegium System?

• The SC collegium is headed by the CJI (Chief Justice of India) and comprises four other senior most judges of the court.
• A HC collegium is led by its Chief Justice and four other senior most judges of that court.
  • Names recommended for appointment by a HC collegium reaches the government only after approval by the CJI and the SC collegium.
• Judges of the higher judiciary are appointed only through the collegium system and the government has a role only after names have been decided by the collegium.

What is the Working of the Collegium System and The National Judicial Appointments Commission?

• The collegium recommends of the names of lawyers or judges to the Central Government. Similarly, the Central Government also sends some of its proposed names to the Collegium.
• Collegium considers the names or suggestions made by the Central Government and resends the file to the government for final approval.
  • If the Collegium resends the same name again then the government has to give its assent to the names. But time limit is not fixed to reply. This is the reason that appointment of judges takes a long time.
• Through the 99^th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2014 the National Judicial Commission Act (NJAC) was established to replace the collegium system for the appointment of judges.
• However, the Supreme Court upheld the collegium system and struck down the NJAC as unconstitutional on the grounds that the involvement of Political Executive in judicial appointment was against the “Principles of Basic Structure”. I.e. the “Independence of Judiciary”.

What are the Qualifications Required for the Appointment of Judges?

• A person to be appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court should have the following qualifications:
  • He should be a citizen of India.
  • He should have been a judge of a High Court (or high courts in succession) for five years; or
  • He should have been an advocate of a High Court (or High Courts in succession) for ten years; or
  • He should be a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the president.
• The Constitution has not prescribed a minimum age for appointment as a judge of the Supreme Court.

What are the Oaths or Affirmations?

• A person appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court, before entering upon his office, has to make and subscribe to an oath or affirmation before the President, or some other person appointed by him for this purpose. In his oath, a judge of the Supreme Court swears:
  • to bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India;
  • to uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India;
  • to duly and faithfully and to the best of his ability, knowledge and judgement to perform the duties of the Office without fear or favour, affection or ill-will; and
  • to uphold the Constitution and the laws.

What is the Tenure of Judges?

• The Constitution has not fixed the tenure of a judge of the Supreme Court. However, it makes the following three provisions in this regard:
  • He holds office until he attains the age of 65 years. Any question regarding his age is to be determined by such authority and in such manner as provided by Parliament.
  • He can resign his office by writing to the President.
  • He can be removed from his office by the President on the recommendation of the Parliament.

How does the Removal of Judges take place?

• A judge of the Supreme Court can be removed from his office by an order of the President. The President can issue the removal order only after an address by Parliament has been presented to him in the same session for such removal.
• The address must be supported by a special majority of each House of Parliament (ie, a majority of the total membership of that House and a majority of not less than two-thirds of the members of that House present and voting). The grounds of removal are two—proved misbehaviour or incapacity.
• The Judges Enquiry Act (1968) regulates the procedure relating to the removal of a judge of the Supreme Court by the process of impeachment:
  • No judge of the Supreme Court has been impeached so far. Impeachment motions of Justice V Ramaswami (1991–1993) and the Justice Dipak Misra (2017-18) were defeated in the Parliament.

How are Salaries and Allowances Determined?

• The salaries, allowances, privileges, leave and pension of the judges of the Supreme Court are determined from time to time by the Parliament. They cannot be varied to their disadvantage after their appointment except during a financial emergency.